Roger A. Baldwin,1,2 Philip S. Gipson,1 Gerald L. Zuercher,1,3 and Troy R. Livingston1
DeWayne A. Backhus1 and Elizabeth K. Fitch2
Kenshu Shimada1,2 and M. Vonetta Fernandes3
Michael J. Everhart1 and Keith Ewell2
Philip S. Gipson1 and Jan F. Kamler2
James S. Aber and Susan W. Aber,1 Firooza Pavri,2 Elena Volkova,3 and Robert L. Penner II4
Rami Al-Khatib1,2 and Marshall D. Sundberg1
Calen Henderson. Blue Valley North High School, 12200 Lamar, Overland Park, KS 66209 (calen.b.henderson@vanderbilt.edu).
Asteroids that lie in the main belt between Mars and Jupiter are grouped into asteroid families based upon similar characteristics such as orbit eccentricity and inclination. The purpose of this research is to investigate the possibility of another determining factor for asteroid family classification. It has been proven that objects in space undergo a degree of space weathering due to constant bombardment by particles of interplanetary dust and micrometeorites, resulting in a definite reddening in the optical properties of the surface of the object. An age-color relationship for asteroids has also been proven to exist. Thus, it is hypothesized that, since asteroids of the same family result from the same collision, they have the same age and have been subjected to the same degree of space weathering. The degree of redness of an astrophotograph, as indicated by RGB analysis, should remain relatively constant for asteroids within the same family. To test this hypothesis, a sampling group consisting of three asteroids from each of three of the eight major families was photographed at the Powell Observatory in Louisburg, KS. Image analysis was performed to determine if there is a distinct correlation between the magnitude of the red component of the images and the family designation, as predicted. The numerical results obtained show that, based on the color data obtained, no clear predictor for asteroid family was evident.
Donald P. Althoff,1 Philip S. Gipson,2 Jeffrey S. Pontius,3 and Philip B. Woodford4
Glennis A. Kaufman and Donald W. Kaufman. Division of Biology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506-4901 (gkaufman@ksu.edu).
We documented 22 species of mammals on the Smoky Hills Army National Guard Training Facility in Saline Co., Kansas during a 3-year study initiated in 1998. These mammals included 12 species of rodents, 4 of carnivores, 3 of insectivores, and 1 each of deer, lagomorph and opossum. During our sampling surveys of small mammals, the white-footed mouse (Peromyscus leucopus) was the most common species captured, but it was captured only in our 1 woodland site and in grassland sites that had scattered woody vegetation. The most common small mammals in our 13 grassland sites were the deer mouse (P. maniculatus) and hispid cotton rat (Sigmodon hispidus). Additional records of mammals came from incidental captures in pitfall and funnel traps set for herps, sightings of live and dead individuals and observations of species-specific sign during the 3-year period.
D.F. Merriam. Kansas Geological Survey, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66047
The Conrad discontinuity is identified in the U.S. Midcontinent Precambrian crust as a prominent seismic velocity change from about 6.1 to 6.7 km/sec at a depth of between 7.5 and 13.7 km (4.7 and 8.6 mi) in Kansas. There is some discussion, however, as to whether the discontinuity really exists, and if it does, what it represents. It is at this depth that numerous intermediate-depth microearthquakes occur suggesting that these quakes define the discontinuity. Mapping the depth of the microquakes gives a configuration of the discontinuity consistent with the relation of the fault-bounded Midcontinent Rift System to the overall Precambrian basement-rock pattern.
Katie N. Bertrand,1 Keith B. Gido,1 and Christopher S. Guy2,3
Daniel E. Wujek,1,4 Peter Timpano2 and Rufus H. Thompson3
Kevin J. Aldrich,1 David K. Saunders,2 Lynnette M. Sievert,1 and Greg Sievert1
R. Jones. Physical Sciences Department, Emporia State University, Emporia, KS 66801 (rjones@emporia.edu).
We describe the design and use of a hierarchically-structured autonomous software agent. Algorithms are presented for the three major elements which make up the architecture: a classifier array, a network of sequence learners, and a value module. Learning algorithms are also outlined.
Ryan D. Hubbard, Donald P. Althoff,1 Kevin A. Blecha, Brianna A. Bruvold and Russell D. Japuntich. Division of Biology, Leasure Hall, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506. Corresponding author (dalthoff@ksu.edu).
Knowledge of nest site characteristics and nest success of grassland birds is important in the conservation and preservation of species such as the eastern meadowlark (Sturnella magna) and grasshopper sparrow (Ammodramus savannarum). We documented nest site characteristics of these two species and compared each nest site to a paired random site. We also compared the eastern meadowlark nest sites to the grasshopper sparrow nest sites. Eastern meadowlark nests were significantly further from an edge than random (P=0.049). Grasshopper sparrow nests were significantly further from a shrub/tree (P=0.042) and a perch (P=0.004) than random. Eastern meadowlarks selected sites further from a bare ground patch (>1 m2; P=0.007), with more litter depth (P=<0.001), smaller bare ground percent (P=0.083) and higher visual obstruction readings (VOR) (P=0.037) than grasshopper sparrows. Military training, conducted before the current breeding season, did not appear to effect the location and success of EAME and GRSP nests. Based on distance to nearest military vehicle track, we conclude that minimal military disturbance is not a deterrent to EAME or GRSP nest site selection. We recommend that management of nesting habitat for eastern meadowlarks include consideration of litter depth (more is better), bare ground (less is better), and amount of woody vegetation and/or edge habitat (less is better). For grasshopper sparrow nesting habitat, minimal or no litter, modest amounts of bare ground, and shorter vegetation is recommended.
Jason A. Koontz. Department of Environmental Science, Haskell Indian Nations University, Lawrence, KS 66046 (dpuk13@yahoo.com).
Aedes vexans (Diptera: Culicidae) larvae collected from ephemeral lentic habitats in the Haskell-Baker Wetlands, south of Lawrence, Kansas, were infested with a symbiotic fungus. Two isolates of Smittium culisetae, KS-108-02 and KS-108-06, were axenically cultured from the hindguts of the mosquito larvae. Physiological studies were conducted on isolate KS-108-02 to investigate conditions suitable for successful development of the fungus. The effects of temperature, pH, and different carbon and nitrogen sources on the growth of this new isolate were studied in vitro. Growth was measured as mycelium dry weight for all studies. Asexual trichospore production was monitored in the temperature, pH, and nitrogen source studies. Higher temperatures of 30 C and 24 C produced higher growth rates and trichospore production in shorter periods of time compared to temperatures of 18 C and 12 C. Media with lower pH produced greater growth than media with higher pH. Trichospore production was highest at pH 5.0, reaching an average of 1.21 X 105 trichospores/ml, but above pH 5.0 trichospore production decreased. Glucose produced the greatest amount of growth followed by maltose, fructose, and soluble starch when the isolate was tested with various carbon sources. When tryptone concentrations in the culture medium were reduced to 0.1% in the nitrogen-source study, isolate KS-108-02 exhibited some reciprocal effects between growth and sporulation, wherein nitrogen sources that produced higher mycelium dry weight yielded lower sporulation and vice versa. Results of this study differed slightly from previous studies conducted on S. culisetae.
Lynett R. Bontrager, Daphne M. Jones and Lynnette M. Sievert. Department of Biological Sciences, Emporia State University, 1200 Commercial Street, Emporia, Kansas 66801. Corresponding author (lsievert@emporia.edu).
Postprandial thermophily occurs because snakes presumably select body temperatures to maximize digestive functions. However, there seems to be little to no literature available on meal size affecting the degree of postprandial thermophily in snakes. We were interested in determining if meal size influenced post-feeding thermoregulation. To test this, we placed individual snakes into linear thermal gradients with floor temperatures ranging from 10 ± 0.5º C to 40 ± 1.0º C. After a 24 h habituation period, substrate temperatures were measured underneath the snake’s body, 1/3 of the way down its length, at 3-hour intervals from 0900 to 1800 h. Each snake was monitored under three different conditions: during a fast, after ingesting a 5% body mass meal, and after ingesting a 10% body mass meal. The size of the meal had a significant effect (P=0.0365) on selected substrate temperatures.
Steven R. Davis and Michael S. Engel. Division of Entomology, Natural History Museum, and Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, 1345 Jayhawk Boulevard, Dyche Hall, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas 66045-7163 (steved@ku.edu; msengel@ku.edu).
Two new species of dryophthorine weevils (Curculionoidea: Curculionidae: Dryophthorinae: Dryophthorini) are described and figured from remains preserved in Early Miocene (Burdigalian) amber from the Dominican Republic. Stenommatus pulvereus n. sp. and Dryophthorus acarophilus n. sp. are distinguished from each other as well as modern congeners. These are the first, described amber fossils of the subfamily Dryophthorinae and the fourth and fifth definitive fossil records for the Dryophthorini. Like many modern species of dryophthorines the fossils have been found in association with mites (Acari), indicating that this likely phoretic interaction is at least 19 million years old.
Sherrie K. Stawinski, Lance Thurlow, Amanda Robben, and Eric T. Gillock. Department of Biological Sciences, Fort Hays State University, Hays, KS 67601. Corresponding author (Egillock@fhsu.edu).
A microorganism that initially resembled a fungus was observed growing on preserved cat dissection specimen in the Fort Hays State University anatomy laboratory. A sample of this organism was collected with a sterile swab and streaked for isolation on tryptic soy agar. The resulting colonies were subcultured numerous times until an axenic culture was obtained. Characterization of the organism by 16S rRNA gene sequencing, fatty acid methyl ester analysis, and scanning electron microscopy suggested the organism is most likely a previously undescribed member of the bacterial genus Saccharopolyspora.
Todd A. Aschenbach1 and Kelly Kindscher2
G.G. Naughton,1 W.A. Geyer2 and E. Chambers IV3
Jeremy S. Tiemann. Illinois Natural History Survey, Center for Biodiversity, 1816 South Oak Street, Champaign, IL 61820 (jtiemann@inhs.uiuc.edu).
Sixty years have past since the last extensive freshwater mussel (Bivalvia: Unionidae) survey of the Wakarusa River basin. During that time, the basin has experienced substantial changes, including construction of a reservoir. To determine what changes might have occurred in the freshwater mussel assemblage since the last survey, I sampled freshwater mussels by hand grabbing in a haphazard manner at 28 sites in the summer of 2004. Of the 27 species historically known from the basin, I collected 39 live individuals representing nine species in 52 man-hours, including one Truncilla donaciformis, which is listed as species-in-need-of-conservation by the state of Kansas; I also found valves of an additional four species. Six sites had live individuals, and valves were found at an additional ten sites. I did not find the exotic Dreissena polymorpha, which recently has become established in Kansas in the Walnut River basin.
Linda Kuenzi1 and Amy Strong2
Michael S. Engel. Division of Entomology, Natural History Museum, and Department of Ecology & Evolutionary Biology, 1345 Jayhawk Boulevard, Dyche Hall, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas 66045-7163 (msengel@ku.edu).
The primitive silverfish Tricholepidion gertschi Wygodzinsky has traditionally been considered to be the sole surviving member of the family Lepidotrichidae, originally described from a middle Eocene fossil in Baltic amber. The fossil species, however, possesses apomorphic traits uniting it with more typical Zygentoma, and Lepidotrichidae in the traditional sense is grouped solely on plesiomorphic features. Tricholepidion is a relic of a more ancient diversification than Lepidotrichidae or even Lepidotrichidae + Euzygentoma (= Neozygentoma). Tricholepidion is therefore segregated into a separate family, Tricholepidiidae, familia novum, and Lepidotrichidae restricted to Lepidothrix in Baltic amber.
Although known more infamously for his efforts with sericulture and the accidental release of the gypsy moth in North America, the mid-nineteenth century French emigrant E.L. Trouvelot left a more honorable legacy to astronomy based on his celestial observations, and his detailed and accurate drawings of astronomical objects and phenomena. A portfolio of 15 Trouvelot prints and an accompanying manual were produced and distributed by Charles Scribner’s Sons in 1881; Emporia State University possesses ten of the portfolio prints, but not an original of the manual. The ten prints at ESU include numbers III (total solar eclipse), V (zodiacal light), VI (lunar mare Humorum), VII (partial lunar eclipse), VIII (Mars), IX (Jupiter), XI (comet of 1881), XIII (Milky Way), XIV (Hercules cluster, M13), and XV (Orion nebula, M42). Although the basis for their presence is uncertain, it has an apparent coincidence with T.M. Iden, who arrived at then Kansas State Normal School in 1897 as head of the physical sciences. The ESU Trouvelot prints have been properly conserved to preserve these historically significant renderings.
FHSM VP-2139 is the proximal end of a right carpometacarpus of the Late Cretaceous toothed seabird, Ichthyornis (Aves: Ichthyornithiformes), housed in the Sternberg Museum of Natural History, Hays Kansas. The specimen was found near the contact between the Carlile and Greenhorn Formations in southern Ellis County, Kansas. The specimen marks the oldest record of Ichthyornis in Kansas, and this report represents the first detailed account of this specimen. The estimated total “skeletal length” (from the beak tip to the pygostyle tip) and “skeletal wingspan” (between the right and left phalangeal tips) of the bird individual are 24 cm and 43 cm, respectively. The bird specimen is paleoecologically intriguing, because it occurred in an offshore deposit which formed during the maximum transgressive phase of the Greenhorn Cyclothem.
The Niobrara Chalk in western Kansas was deposited on the eastern shelf of the Late Cretaceous Western Interior Sea during Coniacian through early Campanian time, hundreds of miles from the nearest land. As might be expected, the remains of terrestrial animals, including dinosaurs, are extremely rare in this marine environment. The first dinosaur (Claosaurus agilis) collected by Marsh from the Smoky Hill Chalk Member of the Niobrara Chalk in 1871 was also the only hadrosaur known from this formation. All other dinosaur remains collected there since 1871 have been identified as nodosaurs. Here we report the discovery of an articulated series of nine hadrosaur caudal vertebrae (FHSM VP-15824) from the Smoky Hill Chalk (upper Coniacian) of southeastern Gove County, Kansas. The presence of non-serrated bite marks on four of the vertebrae and the partially digested appearance of the proximal and distal ends of the series suggest that the vertebrae had been scavenged from the floating carcass of a dinosaur by a large shark, most likely Cretoxyrhina mantelli. The specimen represents the earliest known occurrence (Upper Coniacian) of the Hadrosauridae in the Smoky Hill Chalk, and preserves the earliest evidence of scavenging on dinosaur remains by a shark in the Western Interior Sea.
During research on mesopredators on Fort Riley Military Reservation, Kansas, we determined the densities of sympatric coyotes (Canis latrans), bobcats (Lynx rufus), raccoons (Procyon lotor), and opossums (Didelphis virginiana). For six-month trapping periods, we also documented the minimum number of individuals from 8 species of mesopredators that used the 2.6 km2 trapping area. Despite low or moderate densities of mesopredators, a minimum of 48 to 55 individual mesopredators was recorded within the trapping areas, suggesting that small areas can be more intensively used than density estimates would suggest.
Cheyenne Bottoms is a Ramsar wetland site in central Kansas, where the Nature Conservancy (NC) has undertaken an effort since the mid-1990s to maintain and restore marsh and wet-meadow habitats for migrating shorebirds and waterfowl. Small-format aerial photography was conducted using kites and a helium blimp in order to document changing water and vegetation conditions during the years 2002-2005. Pictures were taken repeatedly throughout the growing seasons with various film and digital cameras from heights of 100-150 m. Invasive cattails (Typha sp.) are a major concern; the spread of cattail thickets during the 1990s reduced the open marshes on which migrating shorebirds depend for feeding. The NC adopted a strategy in which drought episodes are exploited for control of cattails. During our study, a drought cycle took place. Both color-visible and color-infrared images depict the impact of changing water level on cattails, which over the course of two years (2002 to 2004) were largely eliminated from the NC marshes. Dead cattail thickets were removed subsequently (mowing and burning), and these zones were restored into open marsh that supports beneficial emergent wetland vegetation--Scirpus, Eleocharis, Sagittaria, etc. Small-format aerial photography provided high-resolution, multi-view-angle imagery that depicts the consequences of NC management practices on marsh habitat conditions.
Fruit development was examined in two lines of Tabasco pepper (Capsicum frutescens) which had previously been selected for hard-to-pick persistent fruit (HP) or easy-to-pick (EP) fruit. Four plants of each line were grown under glass. Random selections of ten flowers of each line were tagged at three or four-day intervals until the first-tagged flowers were in the “mature red” harvest condition. At that point all samples were collected and paraffin-processed for anatomical examination. Cells in the separation zone were examined morphometrically to determine the rate of sclerenchyma differentiation. Although cells in both the central and peripheral regions of the separation zone become sclerified in both lines, sclereid differentiation is faster and more complete in the HP line. In both lines sclerenchyma in the peripheral zone matured significantly faster than sclerenchyma in the corresponding central zone. Although degree of sclerification may have some role in tenacity of the HP fruit to the subtending pedicel, it does not correlate strongly with detachment force, especially in the EP line.
The Land Condition Trend Analysis (LCTA) program was developed by the US Army and implemented on Fort Riley, Kansas, to monitor trends in plant communities so that managers could maintain quality training lands without the loss of ecological diversity. As a standard protocol, vegetation surveys using the point-intercept method were conducted on from 1994-2001. Presence of bare ground, soil erosion, and military vehicle traffic were also recorded. At the community level, species richness usually fluctuated < 10% annually and declined 6% from 1994-2001. Species richness per plot increased from 1994 to 2001 by 6.5% as compared to the 1994 estimate. Annual species richness of noxious plants ranged from 18-26 species; noxious species per plot averaged 1.0-2.4 species annually with higher estimates usually observed in grassland (vs. woodland) habitats. Modest year-to-year changes were noted at the species level for the most frequently observed species based on an index of relative difference. Two noxious plant species, sericea lespedeza (Lespedeza cuneata) and Johnsongrass (Sorghum halepense), first detected during the second year of monitoring, expanded their distribution considerably on the fort. This expansion may have resulted when mechanized training facilitated transport of seed on vehicles from one training area to another. The patterns of expansion (both on a plot and on a training area basis) by these two noxious species revealed that our analysis approach may be useful for detecting early stages of infestations on this highly disturbed landscape. Bare ground conditions increased on an average of 1.5% per year, but may not be completely attributable to military training activities. Because there appears to be little year-to-year fluctuation in the diversity of the plant communities and trends for most individual plant species monitored on Fort Riley, we recommend detailed plant surveys not be conducted annually. An exception would be monitoring of noxious plant species with a method other than the point-intercept technique, which is extremely time-consuming.
Backpack electrofishing is a common method used to compare total species richness and relative abundance of stream fishes across space and time. However, as with any sampling method, it is important to evaluate the sampling effort necessary to capture patterns of variation in fish assemblage structure across samples. Thus, we evaluated the efficacy of single-pass versus multiple-pass backpack electrofishing for minnows and darters in intermittent prairie streams. We found that in 14 of 19 three-pass electrofishing samples, we detected all species during the first pass. The samples where we missed species on the first pass were in pools with six to nine species, suggesting a single-pass sample worked best for pools with lower species richness. We also found that both the raw abundance (i.e., catch rates) and rank abundance of four common species based on the first pass is highly concordant with the second and third passes. Nevertheless, differences in capture efficiency varied by species and density. In particular, our ability to deplete a species from a stream pool was highly variable when fish densities were low, and for Phoxinus erythrogaster, it was variable across all densities. Overall, our data suggest single-pass electrofishing can be used to detect spatial and temporal trends in abundance and species richness given standardized effort, but may not be representative of absolute population densities.
Historical and recent reports on Volvox aureus have not satisfactorily explained cellular differentiation and development in this organism. The diagrammatic illustrations in these reports fail to accurately depict the division pattern of the developing embryo. In reinterpreting Volvox embryogenesis, the dextral spiral adjustment which occurs between each cell division can be identified as an important factor in understanding the how and when reproductive and somatic tissues are segregated and positioned. As cleavage of the asexual gonidium commences, each division is preceded by a period of enlargement and adjustment which helps position the axis of cytokinesis and the alignment of the resulting cells. Previous reports do not fully appreciate the importance of these movements; therefore, their diagrams do not compensate for the cellular aligned, diagrams are not wholly valid. By correctly adjusting and aligning these embryonic cells, it is possible to recognize the third cleavage which results in an 8-cell individual as the division which delineates the animal from the vegetal pole. In all subsequent divisions, new cells are cut off toward the phialopore; therefore, cellular products from animal and vegetal regions do not mix. The integrity of these distinct regions is always maintained. By the 32-cell stage, the 16 pregonidial initials are formed. Future divisions on these 16 cells are unequal, ultimately resulting in 16 gonidia and their somatic derivatives. The final result, after inversion, is a clearly defined organism with reproductive potential located in the posterior of the individual.
Erythrocyte osmotic fragility (EOF) is a measure of erythrocyte strength and its ability to withstand varying osmotic gradients. Erythrocyte osmotic fragility was compared among a variety of terrestrial ectotherms, aquatic/semiaquatic ectotherms and endotherms. We hypothesized that EOF should be lowest in those animals that are aquatic and whose red blood cells would likely be exposed to hypotonic conditions (i.e., some amphibians and reptiles). The greatest erythrocyte osmotic resistance (i.e., least fragile erythrocytes) was found in bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana), followed in decreasing order by the larval tiger salamander (Ambystoma tigrinum), marine toad (Bufo marinus), ornate box turtle (Terrepene ornata ornata), painted turtle (Chrysemys picta bellii), red-eared slider (Trachemys scripta elegans), red-sided garter snake (Thamnophis sirtalis parietalis), domestic chicken (Gallus gallus), cotton rat (Sigmodon hispidus), Sprague-Dawley rat (Rattus norvegicus), and eastern woodrat (Neotoma floridana). A significantly higher erythrocyte osmotic resistance was detected in the aquatic/semiaquatic amphibians (R. catesbeiana and A. tigrinum) than in the terrestrial amphibian (B. marinus). However, among reptilian species, no significant differences were noted between terrestrial and aquatic/semiaquatic species. The erythrocytes of ectotherms possessed a greater osmotic resistance than those of endotherms. Such differences might be necessary because of exposure to wide temperature ranges in ectotherms and/or the long erythrocyte life span of ectothermic red blood cells relative to those of endotherms. Nucleated erythrocytes were more osmotically resistant than were non-nucleated erythrocytes. Additionally, erythrocyte osmotic resistance was correlated with erythrocyte mean cell volume. Larger erythrocytes were more osmotically resistant than smaller erythrocytes. Polynomial regression equations computed to approximate these data showed the cubic polynomial to be an excellent fit when data for the larval tiger salamander were excluded. Our data suggest that erythrocyte volume may play a significant role in erythrocyte osmotic resistance.
Soil salinity and vegetative cover were investigated at Cheyenne Bottoms Preserve, Kansas in an effort to identify and document the plant species present on naturally occurring salt- and sodium-affected soil. Soil salinity (as indicated by electrical conductivity, ECe) and sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) were measured from nine soil samples collected to a depth of 20 cm in June 1998. Vegetative cover was visually estimated in June and September 1998. A total of 20 plant species were encountered at five soil sampling locations on soils classified as saline, saline-sodic, or sodic. Dominant species observed include Agropyron smithii, Distichlis spicata, Euphorbia geyeri, Poa arida, and Sporobolus airoides. While most species encountered during this study exhibited greater vegetative cover on non-saline soils, all of the dominant species, except A. smithii, exhibited greater cover on salt-affected soil compared to non-saline soil. Comparable salinity levels and species found in areas that have been degraded through oil and gas production activities suggest that the dominant species observed in this study deserve further attention as potential candidates for the restoration of salt-affected areas.
Experimental tapping of black walnut (Juglans nigra L.) trees has shown that there is a substantial amount of sap flow in young black walnut trees and that it can be tapped and processed for the making of sugar syrup. It also shows the importance of a wide sapwood ring in obtaining a good yield of sap. Wind and temperature fluctuations appear to be related to daily sap production. Tree diameter, position in the stand, degree of openness of the crown, and some weather conditions were not reliable in predicting high-yield trees in this study, and sap sugar variation was too narrow to correlate to any other factors. Qualified taste tests indicate that the commercial Log Cabin ® product was preferred over both the walnut and the sugar maple syrups.
Earthquakes are unpredictable and result in losses of millions of dollars in property damage and large numbers of fatalities. The majority of the structural damage occurs when buildings sway back and forth or deflect. This experiment was conducted to find out if bracing the floors of a multistory building would decrease the amount of deflection thus inferring that a building would be safer during an earthquake. The experiment was performed using multistory buildings with varying amounts of bracing. A shaking table was designed and built to simulate an earthquake. Deflection of each building was recorded with a video camera and measurements of the displacement of the top and base of the building were taken using frame-by-frame video software. Deflections were calculated by measuring the displacement of the top of the building in comparison to the bottom. The data collected from the experiment showed that the deflection decreased as more bracing was added to the building.
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